Advancements in Organoid-Based Drug Discovery: Revolutionizing Precision Medicine and Pharmacology.

Organoids, 3D cellular models derived from stem cells, have revolutionized drug testing by providing human-relevant systems for modeling diseases and testing drug efficacy. Unlike traditional 2D cell cultures or animal models, organoids closely resemble the complex architecture and function of human tissues, offering more accurate predictions of drug responses. Researchers are increasingly utilizing these models in oncology, neurology, liver toxicity, and personalized medicine. Recent advances in gene editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9), multi-omics technologies, and organoid-on-chip systems have further enhanced the capabilities of organoids in drug discovery. CRISPR-Cas9 allows for precise modeling of genetic disorders, while multi-omics approaches integrate transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to provide deeper insights into drug metabolism and toxicity. Organoid-on-chip platforms combine organoid culture with microfluidic systems, enabling the simulation of organ interactions and real-time drug testing. AI and machine learning models now enhance these platforms by predicting drug responses and optimizing high-throughput screening. Despite these advancements, challenges such as scalability, reproducibility, and the incomplete recapitulation of complex organ functions remain. Organoids hold the promise of significantly reducing reliance on animal models, improving the accuracy of drug testing, and paving the way for personalized treatments. This review outlines the latest innovations in organoid-based drug discovery, highlighting their potential to transform modern pharmacology and precision medicine, while acknowledging the ongoing efforts to address existing limitations.