Cardiac Regeneration From Scar to Syncytium: Mitigating the Formation of Scar Tissue.

Myocardial infarction and heart failure remain among the leading global causes of morbidity and mortality, mainly due to the irreversible loss of cardiomyocytes and the human heart's inherently limited regenerative capacity. Cardiac regeneration has emerged as a transformative frontier in cardiovascular medicine in response to this clinical and biological impasse. This review examines current approaches to rebuilding damaged heart tissue and improving cardiac function. Early investigations into cell-based therapies, particularly mesenchymal stem cells, and bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells, showed modest improvements in heart function. These benefits appeared to arise primarily through paracrine signaling, rather than direct tissue regeneration. More recently, researchers have focused on extracellular vesicles and exosomes, acellular messengers that deliver molecular signals to encourage new blood vessel growth, reduce inflammation, and promote cell survival. Breakthroughs in direct cardiac reprogramming now make it possible to convert fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells, while induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes open new doors for personalized disease modeling and potential myocardial reconstruction. Advances in gene editing, most notably clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/Cas9, are elevating the precision and efficiency of regenerative interventions. Finally, synthetic biology and tissue engineering innovations are accelerating the development of physiological cardiac tissue patches and driving the aspiration of a fully implantable bioartificial heart. These multidisciplinary innovations are redefining the boundaries of cardiac care and bringing the prospect of myocardial regeneration increasingly within reach.