Unveiling the multifunctional use of ochre in the Middle Stone Age: Specialized ochre retouchers from Blombos Cave.

Ochre, an iron-rich pigment, is widely associated with symbolic communication, but its functional applications in the Middle Stone Age (MSA) remain poorly understood. Experimental and ethnographic evidence suggests ochre being useful for hide tanning, hafting adhesives, and skin protection, although direct archeological evidence is scarce. We address this gap by presenting ochre tools from Blombos Cave, South Africa, found in Still Bay to pre-Still Bay layers dated 90 to 70,000 years ago. Seven ochre pieces were deliberately modified into lithic retouchers, showing clear use-wear patterns and evidence of intentional shaping. Targeted experiments confirm that some were used for pressure flaking and were rejuvenated to maintain function. These findings provide direct evidence of ochre being used to retouch lithic artifacts during the MSA, highlighting its role in technological systems of this period. The results emphasize the multifunctionality of ochre and suggest that such curated tools may have held personal, cultural, or technological significance within early modern human communities.