Advances in cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: multifunctional platforms for targeted drug delivery, precision phototherapy, and enhanced immunotherapy.

Nanoparticles (NPs) are nanometer-sized structures typically ranging from 1 to 100 nm in all three dimensions. Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as powerful tools in modern medicine, but their clinical translation has been hindered by issues such as rapid immune clearance, limited targeting, and off-target toxicity. Recent advances in cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CM-NPs) provide an innovative solution by combining synthetic nanocarriers with natural cell membrane functionalities. By coating nanoparticles with membranes derived from red blood cells, cancer cells, immune cells, or platelets, CM-NPs inherit properties such as immune evasion, prolonged circulation, biocompatibility, and homotypic targeting. In drug delivery, CM-NPs enhance drug targeting and minimize off-target effects, especially in cancer therapy, where they selectively deliver chemotherapeutics to tumor cells. In phototherapy, these NPs enable precise tumor targeting for photothermal and photodynamic therapies, reducing damage to healthy tissues. In immunotherapy, immune cell-derived NPs modulate immune responses and improve cancer treatment efficacy by delivering immune modulators directly to the tumor microenvironment. Overall, CM-NPs provide a versatile platform to enhance the specificity, safety, and efficacy of drug delivery, phototherapy, and immunotherapy, with substantial potential for clinical translation and disease treatment. This review provides a comprehensive overview of CM-NP preparation methods, highlights their versatile biomedical applications, and critically discusses the remaining challenges and future directions. The insights presented here aim to guide the development of next-generation biomimetic nanomedicines with transformative clinical potential.