Multifactorial Evaluation of Honey from Pakistan: Essential Minerals, Antioxidant Potential, and Toxic Metal Contamination with Relevance to Human Health Risk.

Honey is prized for its nutritional and healing properties, but its quality can be affected by contamination with toxic elements. This study evaluates the nutritional value and health risks of fifteen honey samples from different agro-climatic regions of Pakistan. Physicochemical properties such as color, pH, electrical conductivity, moisture, ash, and solids content were within acceptable ranges. ICP-OES analysis was used to assess six essential minerals and ten toxic metals. Except for slightly elevated boron levels (up to 0.18 mg/kg), all elements were within safe limits, with potassium reaching up to 1018 mg/kg. Human health risk assessments-including Average Daily Dose of Ingestion, Total Hazard Quotient, and Carcinogenic Risk-indicated no carcinogenic threats for adults or children, despite some elevated metal levels. Antioxidant activity, measured through total phenolic content (TPC) and DPPH radical scavenging assays, showed that darker honeys had stronger antioxidant properties. While the overall quality of honey samples was satisfactory, significant variations ( ≤ 0.05) were observed across different regions. These differences are attributed to diverse agro-climatic conditions and production sources. The findings highlight the need for continued monitoring to ensure honey safety and nutritional quality.