Spatial characterisation of social-ecological systems for ecological restoration along the coast cities of Zhejiang, China.

Ecological restoration has become a critical tool for mitigating ecosystem degradation and enhancing ecological health. Effective restoration efforts require regionalisation through identifying of social-ecological system (SES) that integrate socioeconomic and ecological characteristics. However, methodological gaps in clarifying interdimensional interplay often hinder coastal restoration planning. This study develops a spatial characterisation framework to identify coastal SESs for targeted ecological restoration in Zhejiang Province, China. Integrating socioeconomic data and land-marine ecological variables across 28 coastal counties, we employed principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering to delineate nine distinct SESs exhibiting significant heterogeneity: northern clusters (SES1/7/9) show high socioeconomic performance but suboptimal environmental indicators; southern systems (SES2/8) feature lower development but superior environmental conditions; central zones (SES5/6) demonstrate moderate socioeconomic-environmental profiles; while island systems (SES3/4) display low population density, high aging rates, and unique biogeophysical traits. Precise SES categorization enabled identification of primary degradation pressures and formulation tailored restoration strategies within each SES in Zhejiang. Critically, transcending administrative boundaries is essential to accommodate intra-city diversity and cross-city unity, given prevalent transboundary SESs and intra-city variations. We propose four management implications: ecosystem service conservation, pressure-specific interventions, cross-sector governance mechanisms, and participatory restoration incentivization. This framework establishes a transferable approach for sustainable coastal SES restoration management.