Membrane Distillation for Water Desalination: Assessing the Influence of Operating Conditions on the Performance of Serial and Parallel Connection Configurations.

Though the pursuit of sustainable desalination processes with high water recovery has intensified the research interest in membrane distillation (MD), the influence of module connection configuration on performance stability remains poorly explored. The current study provided a comprehensive multiparameter assessment of hollow fibre membrane modules connected in parallel and series in direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) for the first time. The configurations were evaluated under varying process parameters such as temperature (50-70 °C), flow rates (22.1-32.3 mL·s), magnesium concentration as scalant (1.0-4.0 g·L), and flow direction (co-current and counter-current), assessing their influence on temperature gradients (∆), flux and pH stability, salt rejection, and crystallisation. Interestingly, the parallel module configuration maintained high operational stability with uniform flux and temperature differences (∆) even at high recovery factors (>75%). On one hand, the serial configuration experienced fluctuating ∆ caused by thermal and concentration polarisation, causing an early crystallisation (abrupt drop in feed conductivity). Intensified polarisation effects with accelerated crystallisation increased the membrane risk of wetting, particularly at high recovery factors. Despite these changes, the salt rejection remained relatively high (99.9%) for both configurations across all tested conditions. The findings revealed that acidification trends caused by MgSO were configuration-dependent, where the parallel setup-controlled rate of pH collapse. This study presented a novel framework connecting membrane module architecture to mass and heat transfer phenomena, providing a transformative DCMD module configuration design in water desalination. These findings not only provide the critical knowledge gaps in DCMD module configurations but also inform optimisation of MD water desalination to achieve high recovery and stable operation conditions under realistic brine composition.