INTRODUCTION

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has a poor prognosis due to its immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), in which tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a pivotal role in promoting disease progression and therapeutic resistance. This study examines whether Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) could reprogram TAMs and block tumor-stroma communication in OSCC.

METHODS

PB NPs were synthesized using polyvinylpyrrolidone-assisted coprecipitation and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. In vitro, their effects on macrophage polarization were assessed via immunofluorescence, Western blotting (CD206/CD86), and ELISA (TGF-β1/IL-6/TNF-α). The impact on OSCC-macrophage interaction was evaluated using CCK-8 assays, transwell co-culture systems with conditioned media. In vivo, xenograft-bearing mice were used to assess PB NP effects on OSCC-TAM crosstalk. Tumor growth, Ki67 proliferation index, and TAM phenotypes (CD206/CD86) were analyzed. Systemic biocompatibility was further assessed through CCK-8 in vitro and hematological profiling and histopathological examination in vivo.

RESULTS

PB NPs (diameter 57.43 ± 22.25 nm; zeta potential -17.36mV) were successfully made and showed good biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, they shifted M2 TAMs toward anti-tumor M1 phenotypes, reducing CD206 and TGF-β1 while increasing CD86 and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α). This change disrupted OSCC-TAM communication, limiting tumor growth and migration. In vivo, PB NPs reduced tumor volume, lowered the Ki67 cell ratio, and increased the intratumoral M1/M2 macrophage ratio.

CONCLUSION

Prussian blue nanoparticles effectively modulate the immunosuppressive TME in OSCC by shifting TAM polarization from the pro-tumor M2 phenotype to the anti-tumor M1 phenotype, thereby interrupting critical tumor-stroma interactions. Given their intrinsic immunomodulatory properties and favorable biosafety profile, PB NPs represent a promising and safe therapeutic strategy targeting the TME in OSCC.