Advanced biopolymer nanocomposites for real-time biosurveillance and defense against antimicrobial resistance and viral threats.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) presents an ever increasing challenge to health globally. Until now, all conventional antibiotics and antivirals are struggling to keep up with minimum efficacy and eradication rate in both civilian and military contexts. The purpose of this review is to compile all current research on the use of functionalized biopolymer nanocomposites, highlighting them as the next-generation of antimicrobial platforms. The emphasis is placed on natural and synthetic biopolymers such as chitosan, alginate, cellulose, and polyvinyl alcohol, all of which are engineered with a range of nanofillers. The nanofillers themselves include silver, zinc oxide, copper oxide, titanium dioxide, graphene derivatives, and metal-organic frameworks. The synergy of these materials not only enhances but broadens antimicrobial activity. Key mechanisms underlying AMR have been elucidated. These include but are not limited to genetic mutation, efflux pump activation, enzymatic inactivation, and viral adaptation. Besides this the multifaceted antimicrobial actions imparted by biopolymer-nanofiller composites have also been thoroughly described. Additionally, chemical modifications such as sulfation, carboxymethylation, and amination are discussed as critical strategies to further improve antimicrobial efficacy. Regarding practicality, real-world applications including wound care, medical device coatings, air filtration, packaging, biosensors, and military-grade protective equipment have been presented along with all pros and cons as well as limitations and challenges. As for drawbacks, such as toxicity, scalability, regulatory considerations, and the potential for environmental impact, this paper has attempted to critically evaluate these and provide directions for future research.