Deciphering protein long-chain -acylation using mass spectrometry proteomics strategies.

Protein long-chain -acylation, the reversible attachment of fatty acids such as palmitate to cysteine residues thioester bonds, is a widespread post-translational modification that plays a crucial role in regulating protein localization, trafficking, and stability. Despite its prevalence and biological relevance, the study of long-chain -acylation has long lagged behind that of other dynamic PTMs due to the hydrophobic nature and lability of the lipid modification, which complicate conventional proteomic workflows. Recent advances in mass spectrometry-based strategies have significantly expanded the toolbox for studying long-chain -acylation, with improved workflows enabling more sensitive, site-specific, and quantitative analysis. This review summarizes key developments from the past decade across both direct and indirect mass spectrometry-based strategies, including acyl-biotin exchange, lipid metabolic labeling, and novel enrichment and fragmentation methods. We also highlight emerging challenges in distinguishing lipid-specific modifications, achieving robust quantification, and mitigating artifacts from systems, while outlining future directions to advance functional and therapeutic exploration of the -acyl-(prote)ome.