Malaria and dyserythropoiesis: a mini review.

Malaria associated anemia is increasingly recognized as a consequence not only of red cell destruction but of profound, parasite driven disruption of erythropoiesis within the bone marrow niche. Here, we synthesize recent , ex vivo, clinical and postmortem studies to construct a unified mechanistic framework in which four interlocking pathways converge to produce dyserythropoiesis. First, a cytokine storm dominated by IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ and MIF suppresses erythropoietin synthesis, upregulates hepcidin and diverts erythroid progenitors toward myeloid fate via destabilization of GATA-1. Second, hemozoin crystals catalyze Fenton chemistry and lipid peroxidation, generating 4-hydroxynonenal adducts that cripple GATA-1 and trigger mitochondrial apoptosis of erythroblasts. Third, parasites preferentially infect orthochromatic erythroblasts, prolonging a 10-day gametocyte maturation cycle beyond the host's 3-4-day enucleation window and releasing extracellular vesicles that arrest terminal differentiation. Fourth, hemozoin-laden macrophages remodel erythroblastic islands, precipitating local iron restriction and sustained oxidative stress. Together these processes create a "developmental sanctuary" that favors parasite persistence while crippling host erythropoiesis. We also highlight emerging single-cell and spatial-omics technologies, together with 3-D bone-marrow organoids, as platforms for dissecting spatiotemporal parasite-host interactions and for testing niche-targeted therapies aimed at reversing ineffective erythropoiesis.