Race, class, and environmental health: a review and systematization of the literature.

This paper analyzes and systematizes the race and class differentials in exposure to toxic hazards and actual health outcomes. Research is categorized into the following: Proximity to known hazards includes (1) presence of hazardous waste sites and facilities (landfills, incinerators, Superfund sites), (2) exposure to air pollution, (3) exposure to various environmental hazards, e.g., toxic releases and hazards in pesticides and foods; Regulation, amelioration and cleanup includes (4) record of decisions (RODs) and cleanups at NPL sites, (5) regulatory action, as measured by assessed fines for environmental pollution; Health effects includes (6) specific health outcomes which are related to environmental burden (e.g., blood lead levels). Proximity to prospective hazards includes (7) sitting decisions for incinerators, hazardous waste sites, and nuclear storage sites. The overwhelming bulk of evidence supports the "environmental justice" belief that environmental hazards are inequitably distributed by class, and especially race.