Environmental stress effects on bovine reproduction.

Environmental stress is not limited to climatic factors but extends to nutrition, housing, and any stimuli that demand a response from the animal to adapt to new circumstances. Low energy and low or excessive protein levels in the diet are detrimental to reproduction. Likewise, high ambient temperatures and humidity alter the intricate balance of endocrine profiles, leading to lower intensity of estrous behavior, anestrus, embryonic death, and subsequent infertility. Most of these stress factors can be managed with modern technologies to achieve maximum production. Further research in vitamins and minerals under heat stress may add to the knowledge of efficient livestock production.