Theory reduction and non-Boolean theories.

It is suggested that biological theories should be embedded into the family of non-Boolean theories based on an orthomodular propositional calculus. The structure of universal theories that include quantal phenomena is investigated and it is shown that their subtheories form a directed set which cannot be totally orders. A precise definition of theory reduction is given; it turns out that hierarchically different descriptive levels are not related by a homomorphic map. A subtheory that is reducible to a more general theory can be associated with the emergence of novel concepts and is in general subject to a wider empirical clissification scheme than the reducing theory. The implications of these results for reductionism, holism, emergence, and their conceptual unification are discussed.