Diagnostic imaging in deep vein thrombosis of the limbs.

The clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis (DVT) should always be confirmed by instrumental procedures. In fact, about 70% of patients with clinically suspected DVT are shown to be negative on instrumental investigations. Phlebography is still the gold standard in the diagnosis of peripheral DVT. Main phlebographic findings are: persistent filling defect; abrupt interruption of contrast in a vein; lack of opacification in all or some deep veins; flow diversion with opacification of collateral branches. At present, peripheral phlebography is performed when the other noninvasive exams (Color Doppler US and Duplex Doppler) are doubtful, technically limited or when thrombosis of innominate veins or superior vena cava, is suspected. Real-time US enables direct visualization of the limb proximal veins. The venous wall, the venous valves, the thrombus and its development, the anatomic variants, the perivenous structures which may impact on the normal physiology of venous return, are depicted. However, the distal veins of the leg and arm and deep veins (the iliac veins, the superficial femoral vein in the adductor canal) are not accurately visualized. The US findings in DVT include: the presence of echoes within the vascular lumen; the veins in axial scans are not compressible. Pulsed Doppler and duplex Doppler combine the morphologic and functional study. Injury caused by DVT at the valvular level (postphlebitic syndrome) is visualized. Primary deep vein thrombosis caused by valvular disorders (valvular aplasia) is identified. Inadequate superficial and perforating veins to be treated with surgery are mapped. Color Doppler US depicts directly superficial and deep limb veins combining the morphologic with the functional assessment represented by the visualization of the map of flow velocity and direction. Recently, a new diagnostic procedure, the color Doppler Energy (CDE) or Power Doppler has been introduced. Together with mean flow velocity and spectral variance, the signal energy or power is also analyzed. The CDE is independent of the US incidence angle, it does not shows the flow direction, detects particularly slow flows, early canalization of thrombi and non occlusive thrombosis. Color Doppler diagnosis of thrombosis is prompt because an area with absence of color is visualized. Collateral vessels and flow direction within them, is well depicted. Beside the site and extension of thrombosis, color Doppler US is able to directly visualize the distal end of the thrombus, which when floating is at high risk for embolism. CT allows an adequate study of the iliocaval axis and is useful if phlebography or color Doppler US are not diagnostic. Iliocaval thrombosis represents a not infrequent finding during abdominal CT. The thrombus appears as a hypodense mass encircled by the hyperdense rim of contrast medium.