The evaluation and treatment of neuroleptic-induced movement disorders.

Tardive dyskinesia, tardive akathisia, and tardive dystonia are reviewed from a clinical perspective. The evaluation of each syndrome is discussed, and its clinical presentation and course are illustrated with case vignettes. Drugs used in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia are presented, with greater emphasis on the more recently introduced therapies such as clozapine and vitamin E. Although effective treatments remain elusive, neuroleptic-induced movement disorders can be managed satisfactorily in the majority of clinical situations. Algorithms are presented to outline treatment approaches for mild and moderate/severe tardive dyskinesia.