Ultrastructure and cellular biology of nerve regeneration.

Hippocrates provided the first written description of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), as early as the 4th century B.C., and later Herophilus identified nerves as such, distinguished them from tendons; he also traced nerves to the spinal cord. The traditional Hippocratic teaching of the time, however, doubted that nerve healing occurred. Through the subsequent centuries, several papers were written about the PNS but, without sufficient understanding of anatomy, physiology, and the regenerative capacity of the PNS, it is not difficult to comprehend the frustration that might have been encountered by surgeons in dealing with nerve injuries and their subsequent repair. This was probably the reason why nerve repair was rarely actually undertaken prior to the 19th century. A plethora of studies on the PNS and its regeneration has been reported over the last 150 years and has provided us with current knowledge. It is important, before describing the most recent developments in the area of peripheral nerve regeneration, to briefly outline the major advances over the last century. Currently, the therapeutic approaches taken toward the patient with peripheral nerve injury change continuously. Sophisticated advances in technology, cellular and molecular neurobiology, and electron microscopy will doubtless optimize reconstructive strategies in treating nerve injury. A greater awareness and understanding of the nerve ultrastructure, as well as the underlying mechanisms of the regenerative process and those factors detrimental to nerve regeneration, will assist in the successful repair of nerve injury. This paper reviews the cellular, biochemical, and ultrastructural elements of nerve injury and repair, and the rationale for current reconstructive strategies and techniques.