Hammel H T
Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Medical Sciences Program, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, Indiana 47405-4401, USA.
FASEB J. 1999 Feb;13(2):213-31. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.13.2.213.
When a solute is dissolved in water at (T, pel), the temperature and external pressure applied to the solution, the water in the solution is altered as is pure liquid water at (T, pel - piH2Ol). The liquid water and the water in the solution are in equilibrium when piH2Ol is the osmotic pressure of the water in the solution. Every partial molar property of the water in the solution at (T, pel), including its vapor pressure, chemical potential, volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, is identical with the same molar property of pure liquid water at (T, pel - piH2Ol). This elementary fact was deduced by Hulett in 1903 from a thought experiment; he concluded that the internal tension in the force bonding the water is the same in both solution and pure liquid water, in equilibrium, at these differing applied pressures. Hulett's understanding of osmosis and the means by which the water was altered by the solute were neglected and abandoned. Competing ideas included the notions that the solute attracts the water into the solution and that the solute lowers the activity (or concentration) of the water in the solution. These ideas imply that the solute acts on the solvent at the semipermeable membrane separating the solution and water. Hulett's theory of osmosis requires that the solute alter the water at the free surface of the solution where the solute exerts an internal pressure on the boundary of the solution retaining the solute. Fluid exchange across the capillary endothelium is influenced, in part, by colloidal proteins in the plasma. The role of the proteins in capillary fluid exchange must be reinterpreted based on Hulett's view, the only valid view of osmosis.
当一种溶质在温度为(T)、外压为(p_{el})的条件下溶解于水中时，施加于该溶液的温度和外压会使溶液中的水发生变化，就如同处于温度为(T)、外压为(p_{el}-p_{iH_2O})的纯液态水一样。当(p_{iH_2O})为溶液中水的渗透压时，液态水与溶液中的水处于平衡状态。在温度为(T)、外压为(p_{el})时，溶液中水的每一个偏摩尔性质，包括其蒸气压、化学势、体积、内能、焓和熵，都与处于温度为(T)、外压为(p_{el}-p_{iH_2O})的纯液态水的相同摩尔性质相同。这一基本事实是胡利特在1903年通过一个思想实验推导出来的；他得出结论，在这些不同的外加压力下，处于平衡状态的溶液和纯液态水中，水分子间作用力的内张力是相同的。胡利特对渗透作用以及溶质改变水的方式的理解被忽视和摒弃了。与之竞争的观点包括溶质将水吸引到溶液中以及溶质降低溶液中水的活度（或浓度）的概念。这些观点意味着溶质在分隔溶液和水的半透膜处作用于溶剂。胡利特的渗透理论要求溶质在溶液的自由表面改变水，在该表面溶质对保留溶质的溶液边界施加内压。毛细血管内皮细胞间的液体交换部分受到血浆中胶体蛋白的影响。基于胡利特的观点（唯一有效的渗透观点），必须重新解释蛋白质在毛细血管液体交换中的作用。
