Sapp Felicity, Lee Kang, Muir Darwin
Queen's U.
Dev Psychol. 2000 Sep;36(5):547-560. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.547.
Four experiments investigated 3-year-olds' understanding of the appearance-reality distinction using both J. Flavell, F. Green, and J. Flavell's (1986) typical verbal response paradigm and a new, nonverbal response paradigm. Both paradigms require verbal questioning, but the former involves a verbal response and the latter a nonverbal one. In the nonverbal paradigm, children were shown a deceptive object and asked to respond, nonverbally, to 2 different functional requests, 1 concerning the object's apparent property and 1 its real property. In the verbal paradigm, children were asked to state what the object looked like and what it really was. In the verbal paradigm, children were about 30% correct (a rate matching that in the literature), whereas over 90% of the same children were correct in the nonverbal paradigm. Participating in the verbal paradigm first had a detrimental effect on the children's performance in the nonverbal paradigm, but the reverse order had no effect. These results suggest that 3-year-olds can represent two conflicting properties of a deceptive object and thus understand the appearance-reality distinction in the nonverbal domain.
四项实验使用J. 弗拉维尔、F. 格林和J. 弗拉维尔（1986年）的典型言语反应范式以及一种新的非言语反应范式，研究了3岁儿童对表象与现实差异的理解。两种范式都需要进行言语提问，但前者涉及言语反应，后者涉及非言语反应。在非言语范式中，向儿童展示一个具有欺骗性的物体，并要求他们以非言语方式对两个不同的功能性要求做出反应，一个涉及物体的表面属性，另一个涉及其实质属性。在言语范式中，要求儿童说出物体看起来像什么以及它实际上是什么。在言语范式中，儿童的回答正确率约为30%（与文献中的比例相符），而在非言语范式中，同样这些儿童的回答正确率超过90%。先参与言语范式会对儿童在非言语范式中的表现产生不利影响，但顺序相反则没有影响。这些结果表明，3岁儿童能够表征具有欺骗性物体的两种相互冲突的属性，从而在非言语领域理解表象与现实的差异。
