Thornhill Randy, Fincher Corey L, Aran Devaraj
Department of Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001, USA.
Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2009 Feb;84(1):113-31. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00062.x. Epub 2008 Nov 22.
The countries of the world vary in their position along the autocracy-democracy continuum of values. Traditionally, scholars explain this variation as based on resource distribution and disparity among nations. We provide a different framework for understanding the autocracy-democracy dimension and related value dimensions, one that is complementary (not alternative) to the research tradition, but more encompassing, involving both evolutionary (ultimate) and proximate causation of the values. We hypothesize that the variation in values pertaining to autocracy-democracy arises fundamentally out of human (Homo sapiens) species-typical psychological adaptation that manifests contingently, producing values and associated behaviours that functioned adaptively in human evolutionary history to cope with local levels of infectious diseases. We test this parasite hypothesis of democratization using publicly available data measuring democratization, collectivism-individualism, gender egalitarianism, property rights, sexual restrictiveness, and parasite prevalence across many countries of the world. Parasite prevalence across countries is based on a validated index of the severity of 22 important human diseases. We show that, as the hypothesis predicts, collectivism (hence, conservatism), autocracy, women's subordination relative to men's status, and women's sexual restrictiveness are values that positively covary, and that correspond with high prevalence of infectious disease. Apparently, the psychology of xenophobia and ethnocentrism links these values to avoidance and management of parasites. Also as predicted, we show that the antipoles of each of the above values--individualism (hence, liberalism), democracy, and women's rights, freedom and increased participation in casual sex--are a positively covarying set of values in countries with relatively low parasite stress. Beyond the cross-national support for the parasite hypothesis of democratization, it is consistent with the geographic location at high latitudes (and hence reduced parasite stress) of the early democratic transitions in Britain, France and the U.S.A. It, too, is consistent with the marked increase in the liberalization of social values in the West in the 1950s and 1960s (in part, the sexual revolution), regions that, a generation or two earlier, experienced dramatically reduced infectious diseases as a result of antibiotics, vaccinations, food- and water-safety practices, and increased sanitation. Moreover, we hypothesize that the generation and diffusion of innovations (in thought, action and technology) within and among regions, which is associated positively with democratization, is causally related to parasite stress. Finally, we hypothesize that past selection in the context of morbidity and mortality resulting from parasitic disease crafted many of the aspects of social psychology unique to humans.
世界各国在其沿着专制 - 民主连续统一体价值观上的位置各不相同。传统上，学者们将这种差异解释为基于国家间的资源分配和差距。我们提供了一个不同的框架来理解专制 - 民主维度及相关价值维度，这一框架与研究传统互补（而非替代），但更具包容性，涉及价值观的进化（终极）和近因因果关系。我们假设，与专制 - 民主相关的价值观差异根本源于人类（智人）物种典型的心理适应，这种适应偶然地表现出来，产生在人类进化史上具有适应性功能以应对当地传染病水平的价值观和相关行为。我们使用公开可用的数据来衡量民主化、集体主义 - 个人主义、性别平等主义、产权、性限制以及世界许多国家的寄生虫流行率，以此来检验这种民主化的寄生虫假说。各国的寄生虫流行率基于一个经过验证的22种重要人类疾病严重程度的指数。我们表明，正如该假说所预测的，集体主义（因此，保守主义）、专制、相对于男性地位的女性从属以及女性的性限制是呈正相关的价值观，并且与传染病的高流行率相对应。显然，仇外心理和民族中心主义的心理将这些价值观与对寄生虫的回避和管理联系起来。同样如预测的那样，我们表明，在寄生虫压力相对较低的国家，上述每种价值观的对立面——个人主义（因此，自由主义）、民主以及女性权利、自由和随意性行为参与度的提高——是一组呈正相关的价值观。除了跨国数据对民主化的寄生虫假说的支持外，它与英国、法国和美国早期民主转型发生在高纬度地区（因此寄生虫压力较小）的地理位置相一致。它也与20世纪50年代和60年代西方社会价值观自由化的显著增加（部分是性革命）相一致，这些地区在一两代人之前，由于抗生素、疫苗接种、食品和水安全措施以及卫生条件的改善，传染病大幅减少。此外，我们假设，在地区内部和地区之间创新（思想、行动和技术方面）的产生和传播与民主化呈正相关，并且与寄生虫压力存在因果关系。最后，我们假设，过去在寄生虫病导致的发病率和死亡率背景下的选择塑造了许多人类独有的社会心理方面。
