Haslam Michael
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Am J Primatol. 2014 Oct;76(10):910-8. doi: 10.1002/ajp.22284. Epub 2014 Apr 7.
The last common ancestor (LCA) shared by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (P. paniscus) was an Early Pleistocene African ape, which, based on the behavior of modern chimpanzees, may be assumed to be a tool-using animal. However, the character of tool use in the Pan lineage prior to the 20th century is largely unknown. Here, I use available data on wild bonobo tool use and emerging molecular estimates of demography during Pan evolution to hypothesise the plausible tool use behavior of the bonobo-chimpanzee LCA (or "Pancestor") at the start of the Pleistocene, over 2 million years ago. This method indicates that the common ancestor of living Pan apes likely used plant tools for probing, sponging, and display, but it did not use stone tools. Instead, stone tool use appears to have been independently invented by Western African chimpanzees (P. t. verus) during the Middle Pleistocene in the region of modern Liberia-Ivory Coast-Guinea, possibly as recently as 200,000-150,000 years ago. If this is the case, then the LCA of humans and chimpanzees likely also did not use stone tools, and this trait probably first emerged among hominins in Pliocene East Africa. This review also suggests that the consistently higher population sizes of Central African chimpanzees (P. t. troglodytes) over the past million years may have contributed to the increased complexity of wild tool use seen in this sub-species today.
黑猩猩（Pan troglodytes）和倭黑猩猩（P. paniscus）的最近共同祖先（LCA）是早更新世的非洲猿类，基于现代黑猩猩的行为，可以假定它是一种会使用工具的动物。然而，20世纪之前泛猿谱系中工具使用的特征在很大程度上尚不为人知。在这里，我利用关于野生倭黑猩猩工具使用的现有数据以及泛猿进化过程中新兴的人口统计学分子估计，来推测200多万年前更新世开始时倭黑猩猩 - 黑猩猩最近共同祖先（或“祖先”）可能的工具使用行为。这种方法表明，现存泛猿的共同祖先可能使用植物工具进行探测、吸水和展示，但不使用石器。相反，石器的使用似乎是西非黑猩猩（P. t. verus）在中更新世于现代利比里亚 - 象牙海岸 - 几内亚地区独立发明的，可能距今仅20万 - 15万年前。如果是这样的话，那么人类和黑猩猩的最近共同祖先可能也不使用石器，并且这一特征可能最早出现在上新世东非的人亚科动物中。这篇综述还表明，在过去的一百万年里，中非黑猩猩（P. t. troglodytes）持续较高的种群规模可能促成了如今在该亚种中所见的野生工具使用复杂性的增加。
