How Automatically Do Readers Infer Fictional Characters' Emotional States?

We propose that reading stories, such as a narrative about a character who takes money from a store where his best friend works and who later learns that his best friend has been fired, stimulates readers to activate the knowledge of how the character feels when he finds out that his best friend has been fired from a job for something he did. In other words, we propose that readers infer fictional character's emotional states. In this article, we first review two series of laboratory experiments (Gernsbacher, Goldsmith, & Robertson, 1992; Gernsbacher & Robertson, 1992) that empirically tested this hypothesis by measuring participants' reading times to target sentences that contained emotion words that matched (e.g., ) or mismatched (e.g., ) the implied emotional state. We then present a third series of laboratory experiments that tested how automatically such knowledge is activated by using a divided-attention task (tone-identification, per-sentence memory load, or cumulative memory load) and by comparing target-sentence reading time when the emotional state is explicitly mentioned versus only implicit.