Choking under pressure: theoretical models and interventions.

In sport, choking under pressure is a major concern for athletes, coaches and sport psychologists because athletes fail to meet self-imposed performance expectations in critical situations (when it counts the most), which is devastating and embarrassing. Researchers have debated choking under pressure definitions, identified personality characteristics that exacerbate choking outcomes, and examined models to determine mechanisms for choking. Based on these investigations, several interventions to prevent choking have been developed and tested. In this review, we specifically discuss current self-presentation and attention models and theory-driven interventions that help to alleviate choking in order to facilitate the understanding of this complex phenomenon by athletes, sport psychologists and researchers.