Three-dimensional Printing in Anatomy Education: Assessing Potential Ethical Dimensions.

New technological developments have frequently had major consequences for anatomy education, and have raised ethical queries for anatomy educators. The advent of three-dimensional (3D) printing of human material is showing considerable promise as an educational tool that fits alongside cadaveric dissection, plastination, computer simulation, and anatomical models and images. At first glance its ethical implications appear minimal, and yet the more extensive ethical implications around clinical bioprinting suggest that a cautious approach to 3D printing in the dissecting room is in order. Following an overview of early groundbreaking studies into 3D printing of prosections, organs, and archived fetal material, it has become clear that their origin, using donated bodies or 3D files available on the Internet, has ethical overtones. The dynamic presented by digital technology raises questions about the nature of the consent provided by the body donor, reasons for 3D printing, the extent to which it will be commercialized, and its comparative advantages over other available teaching resources. In exploring questions like these, the place of 3D printing within a hierarchical sequence of value is outlined. Discussion centers on the significance of local usage of prints, the challenges created by regarding 3D prints as disposable property, the importance of retaining the human side to anatomy, and the unacceptability of obtaining 3D-printed material from unclaimed bodies. It is concluded that the scientific tenor of 3D processes represents a move away from the human person, so that efforts are required to prevent them accentuating depersonalization and commodification.