Genomic signatures of seed mass adaptation to global precipitation gradients in sorghum.

Seed mass is a key component of adaptation in plants and a determinant of yield in crops. The climatic drivers and genomic basis of seed mass variation remain poorly understood. In the cereal crop Sorghum bicolor, globally-distributed landraces harbor abundant variation in seed mass, which is associated with precipitation in their agroclimatic zones of origin. This study aimed to test the hypothesis that diversifying selection across precipitation gradients, acting on ancestral cereal grain size regulators, underlies seed mass variation in global sorghum germplasm. We tested this hypothesis in a set of 1901 georeferenced and genotyped sorghum landraces, 100-seed mass from common gardens, and bioclimatic precipitation variables. As predicted, 100-seed mass in global germplasm varies significantly among botanical races and is correlated to proxies of the precipitation gradients. With general and mixed linear model genome-wide associations, we identified 29 and 56 of 100 a priori candidate seed size genes with polymorphisms in the top 1% of seed mass association, respectively. Eleven of these genes harbor polymorphisms associated with the precipitation gradient, including orthologs of genes that regulate seed size in other cereals. With FarmCPU, 13 significant SNPs were identified, including one at an a priori candidate gene. Finally, we identified eleven colocalized outlier SNPs associated with seed mass and precipitation that also carry signatures of selection based on F scans and PCAdapt, which represents a significant enrichment. Our findings suggest that seed mass in sorghum was shaped by diversifying selection on drought stress, and can inform genomics-enabled breeding for climate-resilient cereals.