Placental development and function in trisomy 21 and mouse models of Down syndrome: Clues for studying mechanisms underlying atypical development.

Down syndrome (DS) is the most common genetic disorder leading to developmental disability. The phenotypes associated with DS are complex and vary between affected individuals. Placental abnormalities in DS include differences in cytotrophoblast fusion that affect subsequent conversion to syncytiotrophoblast, atypical oxidative stress/antioxidant balance, and increased expression of genes that are also upregulated in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease. Placentas in DS are prematurely senescent, showing atypical evidence of mineralization. Fetuses with DS are especially susceptible to adverse obstetric outcomes, including early in utero demise, stillbirth and growth restriction, all of which are related to placental function. The placenta, therefore, may provide key insights towards understanding the phenotypic variability observed in individuals with DS and aid in identifying biomarkers that can be used to evaluate phenotypic severity and prenatal treatments in real time. To address these issues, many different mouse models of DS have been generated to identify the mechanisms underlying developmental changes in many organ systems. Little is known, however, regarding placental development in the currently available mouse models of DS. Based upon the relative paucity of data on placental development in preclinical mouse models of DS, we recommend that future evaluation of new and existing models routinely include histologic and functional assessments of the placenta. In this paper we summarize studies performed in the placentas of both humans and mouse models with DS, highlighting gaps in knowledge and suggesting directions for future research.