Sleep spindle and slow wave abnormalities in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders: Recent findings and future directions.

Sleep spindles and slow waves are the two main oscillatory activities occurring during NREM sleep. Slow waves are ∼1 Hz, high amplitude, negative-positive deflections that are primarily generated and coordinated within the cortex, whereas sleep spindles are 12-16 Hz, waxing and waning oscillations that are initiated within the thalamus and regulated by thalamo-cortical circuits. In healthy subjects, these oscillations are thought to be responsible for the restorative aspects of sleep and have been increasingly shown to be involved in learning, memory and plasticity. Furthermore, deficits in sleep spindles and, to lesser extent, slow waves have been reported in both chronic schizophrenia (SCZ) and early course psychosis patients. In this article, we will first describe sleep spindle and slow wave characteristics, including their putative functional roles in the healthy brain. We will then review electrophysiological, genetic, and cognitive studies demonstrating spindle and slow wave impairments in SCZ and other psychotic disorders, with particularly emphasis on recent findings in early course patients. Finally, we will discuss how future work, including sleep studies in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis, may help position spindles and slow waves as candidate biomarkers, as well as novel treatment targets, for SCZ and related psychotic disorders.