Zhang Qi, Bilsborrow Richard E, Song Conghe, Tao Shiqi, Huang Qingfeng
The Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
Department of Geography, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
Ecol Econ. 2019 Jun;160:114-127. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.02.019. Epub 2019 Mar 1.
In the late 1990s, China initiated the Conversion of Croplands to Forest Program (CCFP) and the Ecological Welfare Forest Program (EWFP) based on the Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) principle. Positive socioeconomic outcomes of the programs are essential for the long-term success of eco-environment conservation. However, there is lack of understanding of their longer-term (over 10 years) impacts on rural livelihoods. In this paper, we examine income distribution and inequality of rural households under CCFP and EWFP in rural Anhui, China after 12 years of program implementation. Results show that CCFP-participating households have higher income inequality than non-participants, while the EWFP does not have an significant effect. Local off-farm work and out-migration with remittances are the two principal income sources and both add to inequality. A regression-based decomposition of inequality shows that the CCFP indirectly alters livelihoods by increasing out-migration with remittances, but it also adds to inequality from shifting livelihoods to non-agricultural activities. Meanwhile, EWFP payments positively affect agricultural incomes and contribute 16% to agricultural income inequality. Finally, human capital, natural capital and physical capital all play important roles in generating income and inequality, but the factors affecting inequality from agricultural and non-agricultural activities are different.
20世纪90年代末，中国基于生态系统服务付费（PES）原则启动了退耕还林工程（CCFP）和生态公益林工程（EWFP）。这些项目积极的社会经济成果对于生态环境保护的长期成功至关重要。然而，人们对它们对农村生计的长期（超过10年）影响缺乏了解。在本文中，我们考察了在中国安徽农村实施12年后，退耕还林工程和生态公益林工程下农村家庭的收入分配和不平等情况。结果表明，参与退耕还林工程的家庭比未参与者有更高的收入不平等，而生态公益林工程没有显著影响。本地非农工作和有汇款的外出务工是两个主要收入来源，且两者都加剧了不平等。基于回归的不平等分解表明，退耕还林工程通过增加有汇款的外出务工间接改变生计，但它也因生计转向非农业活动而加剧了不平等。同时，生态公益林工程补贴对农业收入有积极影响，并对农业收入不平等贡献了16%。最后，人力资本、自然资本和物质资本在产生收入和不平等方面都发挥着重要作用，但影响农业和非农业活动不平等的因素不同。
