Causality matters in medical imaging.

Causal reasoning can shed new light on the major challenges in machine learning for medical imaging: scarcity of high-quality annotated data and mismatch between the development dataset and the target environment. A causal perspective on these issues allows decisions about data collection, annotation, preprocessing, and learning strategies to be made and scrutinized more transparently, while providing a detailed categorisation of potential biases and mitigation techniques. Along with worked clinical examples, we highlight the importance of establishing the causal relationship between images and their annotations, and offer step-by-step recommendations for future studies.