Anti-Amnesic Effect of Walnut via the Regulation of BBB Function and Neuro-Inflammation in Aβ-Induced Mice.

This study was conducted to assess the protective effect of walnut ( L.) extract on amyloid beta (Aβ)-induced institute of cancer research (ICR) mice. By conducting a Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests with amyloidogenic mice, it was found that walnut extract ameliorated behavioral dysfunction and memory deficit. The walnut extract showed a protective effect on the antioxidant system and cholinergic system by regulating malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) contents, reduced glutathione (GSH) contents, acetylcholine (ACh) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and protein expression of AChE and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Furthermore, the walnut extract suppressed Aβ-induced abnormality of mitochondrial function by ameliorating reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and ATP contents. Finally, the walnut extract regulated the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin concerned with blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), phosphorylated nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor (p-IκB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), related to neuroinflammation and the expression of phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt), caspase-3, hyperphosphorylation of tau (p-tau), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), associated with the Aβ-related Akt pathway.