Evaluating the environmental and economic impact of mining for post-mined land restoration and land-use: A review.

Mining has been a long-standing key player in economic development, employment, infrastructure, and supply of essential raw materials for society. It has served as a viable route to economic transformation in resource-rich countries like Australia, Canada, the United States, and parts of Africa. In this review, the impact of mining has been conceptualized into economic, environmental, and social impacts. While it is clear that mining has transformed many economies, it has also impacted negatively on the environment and, to some extent, society. Some of the negative impacts of mining are loss of vegetation cover, mass destruction of water bodies, loss of biodiversity, land-use changes and food insecurity, increased social vices and conflicts, high cost of living, and air pollution. However, reclamation has been a viable way of reducing the negative impacts of abandoned mine lands and ensure productive and efficient utilization of mine wastelands. Compaction, low or high pH, low water holding capacity, gullies, bulk density, deficiency of micro, and macronutrients are the major factors limiting the productivity of mine wastelands. A combination of physical, chemical, and biological restoration practices is ideal for restoring the mine soil productivity. While the physical method deals with earth-battering, thus putting the land back to shape, the chemical and biological methods include various amendments such as biochar, compost, synthetic fertilizers, synthetic chelates, shrubs, and grasses, and nanoparticles. A combination of these three restoration methods restores soil fertility, stimulates microbial growth, and facilitates early ecological succession. However, before embarking on reclamation, the particular post-mined land use should be clearly stated, such as conservations, forestry, agriculture, construction, intensive recreation, non-intensive recreation, and lake or pool through land suitability and selection analyses. This review has guiding significance and recommendations for mining and post-mined rehabilitation.