Recalcitrant Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Obstacles and Solutions.

Antibiotic treatment failure of infections is very common. In addition to genetically encoded mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, numerous additional factors limit the efficacy of antibiotics Identifying and removing the barriers to antibiotic efficacy are of major importance, as even if new antibiotics become available, they will likely face the same barriers to efficacy as their predecessors. One major obstacle to antibiotic efficacy is the proficiency of to enter a physiological state that is incompatible with antibiotic killing. Multiple pathways leading to antibiotic tolerance and the formation of tolerant subpopulations called persister cells have been described for Additionally, is a versatile pathogen that can infect numerous tissues and invade a variety of cell types, of which some are poorly penetrable to antibiotics. It is therefore unlikely that there will be a single solution to the problem of recalcitrant infection. Instead, specific approaches may be required for targeting tolerant cells within different niches, be it through direct targeting of persister cells, sensitization of persisters to conventional antibiotics, improved penetration of antibiotics to particular niches, or any combination thereof. Here, we examine two well-described reservoirs of antibiotic-tolerant , the biofilm and the macrophage, the barriers these environments present to antibiotic efficacy, and potential solutions to the problem.