Peripheral biomarkers of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current status and future perspective.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Since the diagnosis of ADHD is defined by operational diagnostic criteria consisting of several clinical symptoms, a number of heterogeneous mechanisms have been considered to be implicated in its pathophysiology. Although no clinically reliable biomarkers are available for the diagnosis of ADHD, several plausible candidate biomarkers have been proposed based on recent advances in biochemistry and molecular biology. This review article summarizes potential peripheral biomarkers associated with ADHD, mainly from recently published case-control studies. These include 1) biochemical markers: neurotransmitters and their receptors, neurotrophic factors, serum electrolytes, and inflammation markers; 2) genetic and epigenetic markers: microRNA, mRNA expression, and peripheral DNA methylation; 3) physiological markers: eye movement and electroencephalography. It also discusses the limitations and future directions of these potential biomarkers for application in clinical practice.