Understanding the Role of Inter- and Intramolecular Promoters in Electro- and Photochemical CO Reduction Using Mn, Re, and Ru Catalysts.

Recycling of carbon dioxide to fuels and chemicals is a promising strategy for renewable energy storage. Carbon dioxide conversion can be achieved by (i) artificial photosynthesis using photoinduced electrons; (ii) electrolysis using electricity produced by photovoltaics; and (iii) thermal CO hydrogenation using renewable H. The focus of our group's research is on molecular catalysts, in particular coordination complexes of transition metals (e.g., Mn, Re, and Ru), which offer versatile platforms for mechanistic studies of photo- and electrochemical CO reduction. The interactions of catalytic intermediates with Lewis or Brønsted acids, hydrogen-bonding moieties, solvents, cations, etc., that function as promoters or cofactors have become increasingly important for efficient catalysis. These interactions may have dramatic effects on selectivity and rates by stabilizing intermediates or lowering transition state barriers, but they are difficult to elucidate and challenging to predict. We have been carrying out experimental and theoretical studies of CO reduction using molecular catalysts toward addressing mechanisms of efficient CO reduction systems with emphasis on those containing intramolecular (or pendent) and intermolecular (solution phase) additives. This Account describes the identification of reaction intermediates produced during CO reduction in the presence of triethanolamine or ionic liquids, the benefits of hydrogen-bonding interactions among intermediates or cofactors, and the complications of pendent phenolic donors/phenoxide bases under electrochemical conditions.Triethanolamine (TEOA) is a common sacrificial electron donor for photosensitizer excited state reductive quenching and has a long history of use in photocatalytic CO reduction. It also functions as a Brønsted base in conjunction with more potent sacrificial electron donors, such as 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1-benzo[]imidazole (BIH). Deprotonation of the BIH cation radical promotes irreversible photoinduced electron transfer by preventing charge recombination. Despite its wide use, most research to date has not considered the broader reactions of TEOA, including its direct interaction with CO or its influence on catalytic intermediates. We found that in acetonitrile, TEOA captures CO in the form of a zwitterionic adduct without any metal catalyst. In the presence of ruthenium carbonyl catalysts bearing α-diimine ligands, it participates in metal hydride formation, accelerates hydride transfer to CO to form the bound formate intermediate, and assists in the dissociation of formate anion from the catalyst ( 2020, 142, 2413-2428).Hydrogen bonding and acid/base promoters are understood to interact with key catalytic intermediates, such as the metallocarboxylate or metallocarboxylic acid during CO reduction. The former is a high energy species, and hydrogen-bonding or Lewis acid-stabilization are beneficial. We have found that imidazolium-based ionic liquid cations can stabilize the doubly reduced form of the [ReCl(bpy)(CO)] (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) electrocatalyst through both hydrogen-bonding and π-π interactions, resulting in CO reduction occurring at a more positive potential with a higher catalytic current ( 2014, 5, 2033-2038). Hydrogen bonding interactions between Lewis basic methoxy groups in the second coordination sphere of a Mn-based catalyst and the OH group of the Mn-COOH intermediate in the presence of a Brønsted acid were also found to promote C-(OH) bond cleavage, enabling access to a low-energy protonation-first pathway for CO reduction ( 2017, 139, 2604-2618).The kinetics of forming the metallocarboxylic acid can be enhanced by internal acids, and its proton-induced C-OH bond cleavage to the metallocarbonyl and HO is often the rate-limiting step. Therefore, proton movement organized by pendent hydrogen-bonding networks may also accelerate this step. In contrast, during electrolysis, OH groups in the second coordination sphere are deprotonated to the oxyanions, which deter catalytic CO reduction by directly binding CO to form the carbonate or by making an M-O bond in competition with CO binding ( 2016, 55, 4582-4594). Our results emphasize that detailed mechanistic research is critical in discovering the design principles for improved catalysts.