RicENN: Prediction of Rice Enhancers with Neural Network Based on DNA Sequences.

Enhancers are the primary cis-elements of transcriptional regulation and play a vital role in gene expression at different stages of plant growth and development. Having high locational variation and free scattering in non-encoding genomes, identification of enhancers is a crucial, but challenging work in understanding the biological mechanism of model plants. Recently, applications of neural network models are gaining increasing popularity in predicting the function of genomic elements. Although several computational models have shown great advantages to tackle this challenge, a further study of the identification of rice enhancers from DNA sequences is still lacking. We present RicENN, a novel deep learning framework capable of accurately identifying enhancers of rice, integrating convolution neural networks (CNNs), bi-directional recurrent neural networks (RNNs), and attention mechanisms. A combined-feature representation method was designed to extract the sequence features from original DNA sequences using six types of autocorrelation encodings. Moreover, we verified that the integrated model achieves the best performance by an ablation study. Finally, our deep learning framework realized a reliable prediction of the rice enhancers. The results show RicENN outperforms available alternative approaches in rice species, achieving the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) and the area under the precision-recall curve (AUPRC) of 0.960 and 0.960 on cross-validation, and 0.879 and 0.877 during independent tests, respectively. This study develops a hybrid model to combine the merits of different neural network architectures, which shows the potential ability to apply deep learning in bioinformatic sequences and contributes to the acceleration of functional genomic studies of rice. RicENN and its code are freely accessible at http://bioinfor.aielab.cc/RicENN/ .