Direct and displaced aggression after exclusion: role of gender differences.

The present studies consider the influence of exclusion on aggressive behavior depending on the target of the aggression and the gender of the aggressor. Previous studies have shown that after exclusion, aggressive behavior occurs toward the excluder as well as toward innocent bystanders. However, there is also evidence that men have a greater tendency toward direct aggression and women have a greater tendency toward displaced aggression. In Studies 1 ( = 89) and 2 ( = 120), participants were ostracized, in Studies 3 ( = 88) and 4 ( = 133), participants were rejected. Then, aggressive behavior toward the excluder or bystander was measured. The results confirmed the gender differences hypothesis, but only in the case of ostracism. After ostracism, more retaliatory aggression was observed in men, and more displaced aggression was noted in women. Rejection resulted in generalized aggressive behavior directed toward the excluder and the bystander in men and women. The results are discussed in light of Sexual Selection Theory.