Characteristics of PM in an Industrial City of Northern China: Mass Concentrations, Chemical Composition, Source Apportionment, and Health Risk Assessment.

Urban and suburban PM samples were collected simultaneously during selected periods representing each season in 2019 in Zibo, China. Samples were analysed for water-soluble inorganic ions, carbon components, and elements. A chemical mass balance model and health risk assessment model were used to investigate the source contributions to PM and the human health risks posed by various pollution sources via the inhalation pathway. Almost 50% of the PM samples exceeded the secondary standard of China's air quality concentration limit (75 µg/m, 24 h). Water-soluble inorganic ions were the main component of PM in Zibo, accounting for 50 ± 8% and 56 ± 11% of PM at the urban and suburban sites, respectively. OC and OC/EC decreased significantly in the past few years due to enhanced energy restructuring. Pearson correlation analysis showed that traffic emissions were the main source of heavy metals. The Cr(VI) concentrations were 1.53 and 1.92 ng/m for urban and suburban sites, respectively, exceeding the national ambient air quality standards limit of 0.025 ng/m. Secondary inorganic aerosols, traffic emissions, and secondary organic aerosols were the dominant contributors to PM in Zibo, with the total contributions from these three sources accounting for approximately 80% of PM and the remaining 20% attributed to traffic emissions. The non-carcinogenic risks from crustal dust for children were 2.23 and 1.15 in urban and suburban areas, respectively, exceeding the safe limit of 1.0 in both locations, as was the case for adults in urban areas. Meanwhile, the carcinogenic risks were all below the safe limit, with the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from traffic emissions being just below the limits. Strict control of precursor emissions, such as SO, NOx, and VOCs, is a good way to reduce PM pollution resulting from secondary aerosols. Traffic control, limiting or preventing outdoor activities, and wearing masks during haze episodes may be also helpful in reducing PM pollution and its non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health impacts in Zibo.