RET in breast cancer: pathogenic implications and mechanisms of drug resistance.

Initiation, progression, outcome and sensibility to therapies in breast cancer (BC), the most frequent cancer in women, are driven by somatic and germline mutations. Although the effectiveness of hormonal therapies is well-founded, it is prescribed for cancers which express steroid hormone receptors, such as estrogen receptor (ER). is a proto-oncogene encoding a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor that is activated by one of its four ligands (GDNF, neurturin, artemin or persephin) and one of its coreceptors (Gfrα1-4). Loss-of-function mutations in RET are responsible for Hirschsprung disease, while gain-of-function mutations for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. In addition, deregulation of its intracellular signaling, due to mutations, gene rearrangements, overexpression or transcriptional upregulation, can cause several neuroendocrine and epithelial tumors. In BC, amplification of receptor tyrosine kinases, such as ERBB2, EGFR, IGFR and FGFR1, and/or their upregulation contribute to cancer initiation and progression. RET can also have an important role in BC, but only in the subset of ER-positive (ER+) tumors, where it is found overexpressed. Targeting the RET pathway and shedding light on molecular basis of the resistance to hormone therapy may lead to new therapies in ER+ BC, improving treatment outcome and preventing tumor-related events. Thus, here, we review the state of the art of RET biology in BC and agents targeting RET tested in the clinical trials and discuss the specificity of the still available RET inhibitors and the molecular mechanisms underlying the BC resistance to endocrine therapy.