Metabolism Interactions Promote the Overall Functioning of the Episymbiotic Chemosynthetic Community of Shinkaia crosnieri of Cold Seeps.

Remarkably diverse bacteria have been observed as biofilm aggregates on the surface of deep-sea invertebrates that support the growth of hosts through chemosynthetic carbon fixation. Growing evidence also indicates that community-wide interactions, and especially cooperation among symbionts, contribute to overall community productivity. Here, metagenome-guided metatranscriptomic and metabolic analyses were conducted to investigate the taxonomic composition, functions, and potential interactions of symbionts dwelling on the seta of Shinkaia crosnieri lobsters in a methane cold seep. and dominated the community, followed by the , , , and Metabolic interactions may be common among the episymbionts since many separate taxon genomes encoded complementary genes within metabolic pathways. Specifically, could contribute to detoxification of hydroxylamine that is a metabolic by-product of . Further, may rely on methanol leaked from cells that efficiently oxidize methane. Elemental sulfur may also serve as a community good that enhances sulfur utilization that benefits the overall community, as evidenced by confocal Raman microscopy. Stable intermediates may connect symbiont metabolic activities in cyclical oxic-hypoxic fluctuating environments, which then enhance overall community functioning. This hypothesis was partially confirmed via experiments. These results highlight the importance of microbe-microbe interactions in symbiosis and deep-sea adaptation. Symbioses between chemosynthetic bacteria and marine invertebrates are common in deep-sea chemosynthetic ecosystems and are considered critical foundations for deep-sea colonization. Episymbiotic microorganisms tend to form condensed biofilms that may facilitate metabolite sharing among biofilm populations. However, the prevalence of metabolic interactions among deep-sea episymbionts and their contributions to deep-sea adaptations are not well understood due to sampling and cultivation difficulties associated with deep-sea environments. Here, we investigated metabolic interactions among the episymbionts of , a dominant chemosynthetic ecosystem lobster species in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Meta-omics characterizations were conducted alongside experiments to validate interaction hypotheses. Furthermore, imaging analysis was conducted, including electron microscopy, fluorescent hybridization (FISH), and confocal Raman microscopy (CRM), to provide direct evidence of metabolic interactions. The results support the Black Queen Hypothesis, wherein leaked public goods are shared among cohabitating microorganisms to enhance the overall adaptability of the community via cooperation.