Subsequent Treatment after Transarterial Chemoembolization Failure/Refractoriness: A Review Based on Published Evidence.

Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) is widely applied for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Repeat TACE is often required in clinical practice because a satisfactory tumor response may not be achieved with a single session. However, repeated TACE procedures can impair liver function and increase treatment-related adverse events, all of which prompted the introduction of the concept of "TACE failure/refractoriness". Mainly based on evidence from two retrospective studies conducted in Japan, sorafenib is recommended as the first choice for subsequent treatment after TACE failure/refractoriness. Several studies have investigated the outcomes of other subsequent treatments, including locoregional, other molecular targeted, anti-programmed death-1/anti-programed death ligand-1 therapies, and combination therapies after TACE failure/refractoriness. In this review, we summarize the up-to-date information about the outcomes of several subsequent treatment modalities after TACE failure/refractoriness.