Advances in electrospinning and 3D bioprinting strategies to enhance functional regeneration of skeletal muscle tissue.

Skeletal muscles are essential for body movement, and the loss of motor function due to volumetric muscle loss (VML) limits the mobility of patients. Current therapeutic approaches are insufficient to offer complete functional recovery of muscle damages. Tissue engineering provides viable ways to fabricate scaffolds to regenerate damaged tissues. Hence, tissue engineering options are explored to address existing challenges in the treatment options for muscle regeneration. Electrospinning is a widely employed fabrication technique to make muscle mimetic nanofibrous scaffolds for tissue regeneration. 3D bioprinting has also been utilized to fabricate muscle-like tissues in recent times. This review discusses the anatomy of skeletal muscle, defects, the healing process, and various treatment options for VML. Further, the advanced strategies in electrospinning of natural and synthetic polymers are discussed, along with the recent developments in the fabrication of hybrid scaffolds. Current approaches in 3D bioprinting of skeletal muscle tissues are outlined with special emphasis on the combination of electrospinning and 3D bioprinting towards the development of fully functional muscle constructs. Finally, the current challenges and future perspectives of these convergence techniques are discussed.