Synergistic Binding of the Halide and Cationic Prime Substrate of the l-Lysine 4-Chlorinase, BesD, in Both Ferrous and Ferryl States.

An aliphatic halogenase requires four substrates: 2-oxoglutarate (2OG), halide (Cl or Br ), the halogenation target ("prime substrate"), and dioxygen. In well-studied cases, the three non-gaseous substrates must bind to activate the enzyme's Fe(II) cofactor for efficient capture of O . Halide, 2OG, and (lastly) O all coordinate directly to the cofactor to initiate its conversion to a -halo-oxo-iron(IV) (haloferryl) complex, which abstracts hydrogen (H•) from the non-coordinating prime substrate to enable radicaloid carbon-halogen coupling. We dissected the kinetic pathway and thermodynamic linkage in binding of the first three substrates of the l -lysine 4-chlorinase, BesD. After 2OG adds, subsequent coordination of the halide to the cofactor and binding of cationic l -Lys near the cofactor are associated with strong heterotropic cooperativity. Progression to the haloferryl intermediate upon addition of O does not trap the substrates in the active site and, in fact, markedly diminishes cooperativity between halide and l -Lys. The surprising lability of the BesD•[Fe(IV)=O]•Cl•succinate• l -Lys complex engenders pathways for decay of the haloferryl intermediate that do not result in l -Lys chlorination, especially at low chloride concentrations; one identified pathway involves oxidation of glycerol. The mechanistic data imply that (i) BesD may have evolved from a hydroxylase ancestor either relatively recently or under weak selective pressure for efficient chlorination and (ii) that acquisition of its activity may have involved the emergence of linkage between l -Lys binding and chloride coordination following loss of the anionic protein-carboxylate iron ligand present in extant hydroxylases.