Pollution characteristics of heavy metals, antibiotic and antibiotic resistance genes in the crested ibis and their habitat across different lifestyle and geography.

Antibacterial resistance in wild animals has been increasingly reported worldwide, even though they are usually not directly exposed to clinically relevant antibiotics. Crested ibis, one of the rarest birds in the world, usually forages in paddy fields and prefer to nest and breed near villages that is greatly influenced by anthropogenic activities. We sampled the feces of crested ibises, as well as their habitat environment samples, to explore the pollution characteristics of heavy metals, antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Results showed that the pollution characteristics of heavy metals, antibiotic, ARGs and gut microbiota of crested ibis were more related by host lifestyle and habitats. Captive ibises had higher relative abundances of the total ARGs and tetracycline concentrations compared with feralization and wild ibises, while the heavy metal contents had shown the opposite result. The Characteristics of pollutants in the corresponding environmental samples also exhibited high similarity with the results of fecal samples. The relative abundances of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were significantly different between captive and wild individuals, while the abundance of majority bacterial genera was generally higher in wild populations. The concentrations of heavy metals in soil (Cd, Cu and Zn) and water (Cd, Cu, Zn and Cr) were both exceeded the background soil levels or surface water quality standards, suggesting multi-element contamination in the habitat. Ecological risk assessments of soils by I and E showed that the habitats of wild ibises were heavily and moderately contaminated by Cd, which would possibly pose a threat to the health of ibises. PLS-PM analysis indicated that microbial compositions and residual antibiotics had the most substantial impact on the dynamic changes in ARGs of ibis. Overall, this work provides a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics, risks of those contaminations, and their effects on the ARGs in the habitat of crested ibis.