Environmental microbiome, human fungal pathogens, and antimicrobial resistance.

Traditionally, antifungal resistance (AFR) has received much less attention compared with bacterial resistance to antibiotics. However, global changes, pandemics, and emerging new fungal infections have highlighted global health consequences of AFR. The recent report of the World Health Organisation (WHO) has identified fungal priority pathogens, and recognised AFR among the greatest global health threats. This is particularly important given the significant increase in fungal infections linked to climate change and pandemics. Environmental factors play critical roles in AFR and fungal infections, as many clinically relevant fungal pathogens and AFR originate from the environment (mainly soil). In addition, the environment serves as a potential rich source for the discovery of new antifungal agents, including mycoviruses and bacterial probiotics, which hold promise for effective therapies. In this article, we summarise the environmental pathways of AFR development and spread among high priority fungal pathogens, and propose potential mechanisms of AFR development and spread. We identify a research priority list to address key knowledge gaps in our understanding of environmental AFR. Further, we propose an integrated roadmap for predictive risk management of AFR that is critical for effective surveillance and forecasting of public health outcomes under current and future climatic conditions.