The dura, arachnoid and pia mater, as the constituent layers of the meninges, along with cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space and ventricles, are essential protectors of the brain and spinal cord. Complemented by immune cells, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves, these connective tissue layers have held many secrets that have only recently begun to be revealed. Each meningeal layer is now known to have molecularly distinct types of fibroblasts. Cerebrospinal fluid clearance through peripheral lymphatics and lymph nodes is well documented, but its routes and flow dynamics are debated. Advances made in meningeal immune functions are also debated. This Review considers the cellular and molecular structure and function of the dura, arachnoid and pia mater in the context of conventional views, recent progress, and what is uncertain or unknown. The hallmarks of meningeal pathophysiology are identified toward developing a more complete understanding of the meninges in health and disease.