A Comprehensive Review of Biomarkers for Chronic Kidney Disease in Older Individuals: Current Perspectives and Future Directions.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive condition characterized by a gradual loss of kidney function, leading to significant health complications and an increased risk of cardiovascular events. Early detection and effective management are crucial for slowing disease progression and improving patient outcomes. Biomarkers are valuable tools in CKD diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Traditional biomarkers, such as serum creatinine and urine protein, are widely used, but emerging biomarkers like cystatin C, kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) offer enhanced diagnostic precision and insights into disease severity. These advanced biomarkers are particularly important in older adults, who may present with age-related physiological changes and comorbid conditions that complicate CKD management. This review explores the current state of biomarker research in CKD, focusing on their application in older populations. It highlights the role of traditional and emerging biomarkers, discusses their relevance for early detection and prognosis, and examines future directions in biomarker research, including technological innovations and personalized medicine approaches. By integrating biomarkers into clinical practice, healthcare providers can achieve more accurate diagnoses, tailor treatments to individual patient needs, and potentially improve the overall management of CKD. Continued research and development in this field are essential for addressing the complexities of CKD and advancing patient care.