Environmental health risk assessment and acute effects of sulfur dioxide (SO) inhalation exposure on traditional sulfur miners at Ijen Crater Volcano, Indonesia.

The Ijen Crater volcano is one of the geological wonders recognized by UNESCO. Inside it is a blue lake with a high acidity level, and a blue fire phenomenon has formed due to the very high concentration of sulfur. This crater is also one of Indonesia's largest sources of sulfur and is used by locals as a traditional sulfur mine. This study aims to measure SO concentrations and assess the health risks of SO exposure in traditional sulfur mine workers. The SO measurements were taken using impingers at six sample points along the mine workers' path. In addition, anthropometric data, work activity patterns, and health complaints during work were collected through direct interviews with 30 respondents selected based on inclusion criteria. Short-Term Health Impact Method was carried out based on a comparison of threshold level values and acute effects obtained from interviews regarding health complaints. The Hazard Question Index (HQ Index) of SO exposure was calculated using the health risk assessment method. The SO concentrations between 3.14 and 18.24 mg/m. All sample points were above the quality standard threshold set by the EPA of 1.97 mg/m. The most common health complaints workers experienced were eye irritation and coughing while working, followed by headache, shortness of breath, and skin irritation. The HQ index of SO exposure in workers was 1.02 for real-time exposure and 2.15 for long-term exposure. An HQ index ≥ 1 indicates a potential health risk for workers. Therefore, it is important to control workers' SO exposure.