The neuropharmacology of kratom, a novel psychoactive natural product.

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa, Korth.) is a tropical tree that is indigenous to Southeast Asia. When ingested, kratom leaves or decoctions from the leaves have been reported to produce complex stimulant and opioid-like effects. For generations native populations in Southeast Asia have used kratom products to stave off fatigue, improve mood, alleviate pain and manage symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Over the past 15-20 years, kratom use has spread to Western nations including the United States, where many individuals are using kratom products for the self-management of pain, opioid use disorder, anxiety and depression. The increased use of kratom has triggered a surge in research into the biochemistry, pharmacology and behavioral effects of kratom and its active constituents, especially mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. In this review, we highlight some of the recent animal studies showing that kratom and its constituent compounds have potential beneficial effects in animal models of pain, anxiety, depression and opioid dependence. We also highlight studies showing that kratom can modulate the functioning of opioid, noradrenergic, serotonergic and dopaminergic systems. The highlighted studies strongly suggest that kratom and its constituents may form the basis for the development of novel therapeutic agents.