Unlocking the potential of titanium dioxide nanoparticles: an insight into green synthesis, optimizations, characterizations, and multifunctional applications.

This comprehensive review explores the emergence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO-NPs) as versatile nanomaterials, particularly exploring their biogenic synthesis methods through different biological entities such as plants, bacteria, fungi, viruses, and algae. These biological entities provide eco-friendly, cost-effective, biocompatible, and rapid methods for TiO-NP synthesis to overcome the disadvantages of traditional approaches. TiO-NPs have distinctive properties, including high surface area, stability, UV protection, and photocatalytic activity, which enable diverse applications. Through detailed analysis, this review demonstrates significant applications of green fabricated TiO-NPs in biomedicine, explicitly highlighting their antimicrobial, anticancer, and antioxidant activities, along with applications in targeted drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, and theragnostic cancer treatment. Additionally, the review underscores their pivotal significance in biosensors, bioimaging, and agricultural applications such as nanopesticides and nanofertilizers. Also, this review proves valuable incorporation of TiO-NPs in the treatment of contaminated soil and water with various environmental contaminants such as dyes, heavy metals, radionuclides, agricultural effluents, and pathogens. These comprehensive findings establish the foundation for future innovations in nanotechnology, underscoring the importance of further investigating bio-based synthetic approaches and bioactivity mechanisms to enhance their efficacy and safety across healthcare, agricultural, and environmental applications.