and Cholangiocarcinoma.

Clonorchiasis is a parasitic disease caused by , a trematode that inhabits the intrahepatic bile ducts of humans and mammals. is one of common food-borne trematodes, prevalent in East Asia including Korea. The International Agency for Research on Cancer reclassified as the Group 1 biological carcinogen of human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Evidence supporting the carcinogenicity of includes epidemiological studies showing increased prevalence and odds ratio (OR) of CCA in clonorchiasis patients, the development of CCA in experimental animals, and molecular studies. Approximately 10% of CCA in Korea are believed to be solely caused by clonorchiasis, with an OR of 4.7 for CCA risk among clonorchiasis patients. All hamsters exposed to both of and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) developed CCA while those exposed to either or NDMA alone did not. In vitro studies using cell models investigated carcinogenetic changes of the intracellular molecules and genes following stimulation with a soluble extract of . The in vitro stimulated cells showed a significant shift to G2/M phage, produced oncogenic molecules, changed expression of oncogenes, increased cell proliferation and suppressed apoptosis. Additionally, the gap-junction proteins between cells, such as connexin (Cx) 43, Cx 26, and Cx 32, were changed significantly, disrupting intercellular homeostasis. These findings suggest that and nitrogen compounds synergistically stimulate the cholangiocytes to become neoplastic. is a biological carcinogen of human CCA, and the World Health Organization guidelines enlist food-borne trematodes as one of target neglected tropical diseases to be eliminated by 2030. The present article reviews and updates perspectives on clonorchiasis, focusing on carcinogenesis.